Written by Nadine Agius for Betapsi on conspiracy theories
A Eurobarometer survey in 2020 that assessed beliefs in conspiracy theories has found that 29% of Maltese respondents were unable to indicate whether the statement “Viruses have been produced in government laboratories to control our freedom” is true or false. Moreover, 38% think that the cure for cancer is hidden for commercial reasons.
What are conspiracy theories?
A conspiracy theory is usually defined as “the belief that a number of actors join together in a secret agreement, in order to achieve a hidden goal, which is perceived to be unlawful or malevolent” (Zonis & Joseph, 1994). This broad definition encapsulates different forms and institutions, including the government, industries and scientific research.
In his book, Van Prooijen (2018) states that there are 5 criteria that make a belief a conspiracy theory;
- A pattern of established connections between actions, objects and people that did not occur by coincidence.
- An agent of action that intentionally planned it out.
- A coalition or group of actors (not always human).
- Hostile motives for the group to act in that way.
- Operations run in secrecy.
Who believes in them?
Conspiracy theorists aren’t zealots in a tinfoil hat, they’re all around us.
There are no set criteria of a conspiracy theorist, they may come from all walks of life. They prefer to identify themselves as critical thinkers that distance themselves from sheep-like people that are gullible enough to conform to the majority (Haramam & Aupers, 2017). However, they cannot be cooped up in one group, in fact, there are differences between categories of conspiracy theorists.
Tonkovic et al. (2021) has found that lower education, lower economic standard, higher importance of religion and having no political affiliation is associated with beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories. Moreover, there is a relationship between authoritarianism, powerlessness and lower trust in science and scientists with COVID-19 conspiracy theories.
Swami et al.(2011) showed that 7/7 bombings conspiracy ideation is negatively correlated with agreeableness, life satisfaction and self-esteem, whilst having a low crystallised intelligence is related to believing in fictitious conspiracy theories.
Additionally, social media use and how people are connected online may play a role in believing in conspiracy theories. Min (2021) has found that those who hold conservative ideologies tend to endorse conspiracy theories more, and this was exacerbated when they discussed on homogeneous social media network settings.
Why do people believe in them?
There are a number of people that keep on believing in irrational ideas in the face of scientific or logical evidence. Besides personal factors that make one more in tune to such type of thinking, there are other, social factors that influence beliefs in conspiracy theories.
Social factors
Social crises, such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may increase the attention towards conspiracy theories (van Prooijen & Douglas, 2017). Such crises are rapid and have a large impact on society as a whole and make people question well-established structures and norms. As a result, people become fearful, uncertain and feel out of control. With such feelings in mind, they try to make sense of the situation by attributing the cause of the situation to certain societal actors. This leads to an increase in vigilance, hostility, and thus an ingroup-outgroup setting. In an interview with the APA in 2020, Douglas states that people feel a sense of power and hope in a situation where they have no control over when they think they have access to information that others cannot see.
Identity to a group is another precursor to believing in conspiracy theories. When a group you are a member of is undermined, you are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories against the agents of those actions (Galinsky & Moskowitz,2000). The influence of this increases when you perceive your social group to be superior to the rest. In a way, it serves as a warning signal- that one’s group is being threatened by a hostile outgroup. Although it has a pro-social aspect in mind, it may lead to disastrous consequences for those considered in the conspiracy (van Prooijen,2018).
Politicians and people holding high power are often the targets of conspiracy theories. This is due to a feeling of outgroup threat conspirers experience. It is easy to blame a party that has a lot of power and the ability to do harm, as one feels threatened by the decision-making abilities they have (Imhoff & Bruder, 2014). Hence, the combination of strongly identifying with one’s group and perceiving other groups as a threat increases the beliefs in conspiracy theories.
How can we reduce beliefs in them?
You might be asking yourself why you should care about conspiracy theories. It is a certainty that conspiracy theories are detrimental to the lives of countless people, and to society, as such we should be concerned that people hold such beliefs. One should not blindly follow leaders and powerful groups without scrutiny or criticism, on the other hand, one should not accept strange theories that have no scientific and logical background (van Prooijen,2018). For instance, believing in medical conspiracy theories results in higher use of alternative medicine and avoidance of traditional medicine, such as using sunscreen and getting the influenza shot (Oliver & Wood,2014). Such behaviours are harmful to themselves as they are more prone to illness and disease, and for others such as spreading the influenza virus.
Hence it is important that beliefs in conspiracy theories are reduced. Van Prooijen (2016) suggests that education and the educational institution is a powerful tool in reducing beliefs in conspiracy theorizing among the population, through providing problem-solving skills, learning how to master one’s own environment and proving an opportunity to increase their opportunity in the job market. The educational curriculum should promote analytical thinking and that, social problems have no simple solutions.
Fostering a belief in science and its findings is pivotal to shifting thinking away from conspiracy theories. This can start at home by discussing issues with friends and family, as Goldberg et al. (2019) found that having “climate conversations” may lead to accepting scientific understandings of climate change. Having high scientific thinking leads one to search for more information accurately, and think deliberatively on what they found, specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic, whereby those more attune to scientific thinking felt less intimidated and threatened (Čavojová et al.,2020). Thus, being less prone and vulnerable to misinformation.
Conclusion
As a result, policymakers and educational institutions should be aware of the implications of conspiracy beliefs and how it is related to scientific thinking in order to implement such teachings into the educational system. Most people are not aware of the complexities of scientific research and how it does not provide quick and easy explanations, in fact, the results of one experiment doesn’t mean it’s a done deal (Weigmann,2018). I encourage all readers to be aware of what they are reading and make sure it is from a reputable source and backed up by findings from authentic research journals that have been peer-reviewed. By being mindful of what we read and repost, we can prevent the spread of misinformation, and reduce the incidence of harmful conspiracy theories.
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