First and foremost, domestic violence, which can also be referred as intimate partner violence, can be perpetuated in various ways including: 

• Verbal;
• Emotional;
• Physical;
• Financial;
• Sexual abuse of another individual/s within the same household.

Unfortunately, it affects any member regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. (Kavita, A. 2014). Moreover, “Domestic violence is a major public health issue and has been linked with many mental health problems including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders and psychosis” (Oram et al., 2018).

Therefore, most can agree that any form of abuse targeted towards an individual, may leave severe and harsh consequences on mental health. Without doubt, domestic violence is increasing, especially during the past two years due to Covid-19, and therefore, new measures need to be established in order combat this issue and its dreadful effects on these victims (Campbell, A. M. (2020).

Prevalence and Statistics

In order to control the spread of Covid-19, safety measures are being implemented such as social-distancing, sheltering in-place and restricting individuals’ ability to go outside (Campbell, A. M. (2020).  For instance, in May, 2020 more than one-third of the entire population of the world was under some form of restriction (Sharma & Borah, 2020). Therefore, as a result of these safety measures, family abuse is dramatically increasing and thus, data suggests that “domestic abuse is acting like an opportunistic infection, flourishing in the conditions created by the pandemic.” (Sharma & Borah, 2020). Furthermore, it’s common for perpetrators of domestic violence to isolate their victims as an act of control and the current societal conditions are likely furthering the impact of these actions. And let us not forget about the high rate of unemployment due to the Coronavirus, serving as a gateway to more marital abuse within households.

Moreover, there is this cultural belief that men should be able to defend themselves, and that there is no such thing as female violence. In a study conducted by Buzawa and her colleagues (2006), showed that “male victims reported three times the rate of serious injury as their female counterparts, 38% compared to 14%”. At the same time, Brown (2006) examined the differences on how both male and female perpetrators were treated by the social justice system. Brown sought 2,044 cases where the man was charged, 155 where the woman was charged, 118 where both were charged and 612 where a complaint was filled but neither was charged. There were 206 cases where only the male partner was injured, and the female was charged in 60.2% of those. However, when the female partner was injured, the male was charged 91.1% of the time (Dutton, 2006). Unfortunately, often when we hear or read the word domestic violence, automatically an image of a man pops up into our heads.

Domestic Violence on Male Victims

Intimate partner violence (IPV) or domestic violence (DV) is often framed as a “woman’s issue” generating the perception of males involved in violent relationships as the aggressor and more capable of inflicting injury and harm. And therefore, as a result of the ‘Gender Paradigm’ whenever a male seeks protection from a female figure, they are treated with more suspicion and with less seriousness (Dutton & White, 2013). One factor as to why any records of assaulted men tends to be low is because often the victims do not see it as abuse and so, no action is done by the police.

The same study also showed that it is far less common for men to call up a friend/relative/professional for help. Nonetheless, because of male victims not reporting their abuse, there is also lack of research about the challenges of providing support to male victims and how barriers to effective service engagement are experienced by both men and professionals in the health sector. For instance a study highlights how, male participants were subject to ridicule by their female partners and also financially abused. Therefore, it is of vital importance that this area is further explored since the safety of these men have been historically overlooked within academic research and service provision (Hines & Bates & Wallace, 2020).

Moreover, in order to tackle this issue a study has been performed by Bates, Wallace and Hines (2020), to explore the nature and context of abuse towards male victims and the perceptions of professionals’ dealing with male victims. The study mainly focused on the theme of ‘Stereotypes and expectations of men’. Conclusions revealed that even though men were exposed to verbal and physical violence, they were still hesitant and even reluctant to seek help, ending up making excuses for their perpetrators each time.

Psychological Health Issues Faced by Male Victims of Domestic Violence

Gender theories of domestic violence, which describe male dominance and violence through the sociological aspects of a patriarchal society, were introduced by feminists in the 1960s and continue to be the basis of most people’s views on domestic violence. On the other hand, the gender symmetry theory of domestic violence views violence as being portrayed both by men and women (Kavita, 2014). Having said that, domestic violence brings with it immense psychological distress, both long-term and short-term. These include depression, alcohol/substance disorder, sleeping/eating disorders, social isolation, anxiety, and personality disorders (Kavita, 2014).

A study conducted by Randle and Graham (2011), found that depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation was common as a result of IPV targeted towards men. This study also revealed that men tended to blame themselves for being abused, even though it was not their fault. A crucial reason as to why more research should be conducted on this overlooked part of the population, is because immediate attention is needed to adequately help and ensure safety of these victims.

Furthermore, an Italian study conducted by Margherita et al., (2021), which is the first ever Italian study to deal with domestic violence targeted to men, focused on the development of psychological distress by male victims and how important it is for clinicians to have a good understanding on the issue. This study showed that interventions such as provision of management guidelines, training to attending physicians and a supportive service to male survivors are needed for victims’ needs to be adequately met.

Conclusion

In conclusion, as made evident in this article, male victims suffer from various mental and physical distresses because of domestic violence. On a brighter note, however, new and improved interventions are being implemented and there is more awareness on this topic due to the fact that people are now talking about it more freely and are realizing that both, male and females can be victims of domestic violence (Hogan et al., 2012).

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Sexual satisfaction can be defined as “an affective response arising from one’s subjective evaluation of the positive and negative dimensions associated with one’s sexual relationship” (Lawrence & Byers, 1995). These dimensions involve intrapersonal experiences, for instance, how often one orgasms during sex, and the experiences of the partner, such as if the partner consistently has erections during sex. Including relationship-related aspects of sexuality, for example how often a couple has sex. A particular aspect that has been shown through research to affect one’s sexual satisfaction is body image (i.e. the mental picture that one creates of their body as a whole, including both its physical characteristics and one’s attitudes towards these particular characteristics).

The Difference between Positive and Negative Body Image in Sexual Satisfaction

Positive body image involves a broad concept of beauty where one accepts one’s whole body for both how it looks and its functions. “Individuals with higher body satisfaction have more frequent sexual experiences, engage in wider range of sexual activities, feel more sexually desirable, and report fewer sexual difficulties” (Penhollow & Young, 2008).

On the other hand, a negative body image is when one does not accept and feel comfortable with their body and appearance, and may even see parts of their body in a distorted way. In fact, people with a negative body image were less likely to engage in sexual intercourse, or otherwise under limited circumstances such as at night or only while still wearing a shirt, due to the increased focus on the body during sexual activity. As well as more likely to engage in behaviours which reduce sexual satisfaction, for instance, connecting negative cognitions and emotions such as body shame to sexual experiences.

In particular, in adolescence, which ranges from when we are 10 years old till 19 years old, one’s body image concerns increase, along with its importance in romantic relationships and one’s sexual self-concept. This is due to puberty, an increase in self-focus and social comparison, and a change in social relationships. In fact, a study By Seiffge-Krenke et al., (2015) found that one’s body satisfaction during adolescence predicted romantic attachment as a young adult, which suggests that if one has a positive body evaluation during adolescence this can increase their confidence for later intimate relationships. Especially if there is greater sexual interest on behalf of the potential or actual sexual partners, which reinforces one’s previously established body satisfaction. 

Even being in a romantic relationship in itself has been related to sexual satisfaction and less body self-consciousness during sexual activity, when compared to single men and women. However, whilst one’s partner can promote positive body images they can also encourage body image concerns. Furthermore, even though masturbation frequency decreases in a committed relationship, it is still linked with sexual satisfaction in both men and women as it allows one to explore sexual preferences in a comfortable space. This is crucial especially since a lack of familiarity with one’s own genitalia, especially amongst women, can sometimes be linked to one having orgasmic difficulties.

Other Factors

Mental Health

Mental health problems have been found to have a large effect on both sexual and body satisfaction. With regards to sexual satisfaction, mental health problems such as anxiety and depression have both been related to a reduction of sexual functioning and relationship factors. Additionally, a negative body image in early adolescence has also been proposed to be related to mental health problems, for instance, depressive symptoms. A study by Griffiths et al. (2016), has found a higher association between body satisfaction and mental health problems for men in comparison to women, which could be due to body dissatisfaction being considered a “female issue” which in consequence, discourages men to speak and seek help for their image concerns.

Body Weight and Size

Body weight also, has been found to be related to both appearance and sexual factors, especially as body weight increases from adolescence to adulthood, which impacts one’s body satisfaction development. A high body mass index (BMI) has been linked to sexually avoidant behaviour, a lower interest in sex, and limited sexual experience. It should also, be taken into account that a young adult male’s BMI can increase due to an increase in muscle mass, which may encourage body evaluation towards the opposite direction.

Research has proposed that men’s body dissatisfaction is linked to feeling underweight instead of overweight, due not fulfilling the “Adonis complex of attractiveness” which encourages men to have a muscular, lean body. With regards to women, it has been suggested that a woman’s perceptions and cognitions about her own body size, instead of her actual body size, may impact her experiences with sexuality. Therefore, challenging one’s own irrational perceptions and shame about one’s body may be beneficial for women who are sexually dissatisfied.

Conclusion

Therefore, this relationship brings to light a new area to explore in both relationships and therapy. Practitioners on one hand, should consider assessing’ the client’s body image and how their distress and distraction of their bodies may be impacting their sexual satisfaction in regardless of their sexual function. As well as both men and women alike should be motivated to bring up their body concerns in their sexual relationships as to decrease these body concerns which in return can also improve the sexual relationship between them. Especially since this impacts the relationship on the whole, as research has shown a decrease in sexual satisfaction across time increases the likelihood of divorce.

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Masturbation, pleasuring yourself, whatever you want to call it. This is when the individual stimulates their genitals for a desirable effect. It is extremely common between BOTH genders. For some reason, there is a taboo around talking about sex and particularly masturbation. It’s time to move away from this and realize there is nothing to be ashamed of and having a healthy sex life is exactly that; healthy. Masturbation can have many positive outcomes and have a direct effect on your health. This is due to many factors such as the release of hormones, confidence, self-knowledge, and many more.

Hormones & the brain:

Dopamine (considered a hormone and a neurotransmitter) plays an important role in executive functions, motor control, motivation, arousal and, reinforcement and reward in the brain. This is one of the hormones released during the process of masturbation.

Oestrogen and testosterone: the sex hormones. During arousal, the hypothalamus is activated which sends signals to our genitals to release these hormones. This, in turn, furthers arousal which typically ends in orgasm.

During arousal (both masturbation and sex), the hypothalamus and limbic systems are even more active. However, other areas, such as the prefrontal cortex, are not. It is for this reason that we are able to think about the feelings of arousal rather than stress as its almost as though the area in our brain responsible for thinking is deactivated.

Benefits:

We are all familiar with stress. The hormonal processes mentioned above are all reasons as to why our stress levels can be reduced. Masturbation can help relieve muscle tension, boost concentration and enhance sleep at night (due to effect on mood and energy levels). It can also reduce the risk of unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases as ‘the urge’ is being taken care of in a controlled manner.

Men vs Women:

We are culturally pushed into thinking men are machines on the topic and women shy away from it. This is even transmitted into studies as some research shows that between the ages of 14-17, males are more likely to masturbate with a 74 inclusion % and women having a mere 48%. These statistics are not unfamiliar to us. Many, however, seem to find them inaccurate, and believe that females are just prone to lie about their masturbation habits. This is often the case (generalizing); that women are not confident talking about sex. Fun fact: Switzerland was found to have a high rate of 92%of Swiss men and 72% of Swiss women who “regularly” pleasure themselves” making them the highest in the EU.

How well do you know your anatomy?:

Time for the not-so-sexy part. Arousal begins with a simple thought. Physiologically, the swelling of the female vulva and clitoris and, in males, an erection. The female’s vagina secretes its own physiological lubrication and eventually, the genital muscles rhythmically contract. During an erection, the smooth muscle sheath surrounding the penis allows blood to enter around the surrounding blood vessels which causes a region nearby to fill and hence: erection. A lot of pressure builds up in the penis and its surrounding structures and thus, semen is ejaculated.

Its not all fun and games:

Unfortunately, there is such a thing as too much of a good thing. Due to its immediate stress relief, people may use masturbation as an escape mechanism and, it too can be addictive. It can be used to run away from emotions both personally and with a partner. This can lead to problems of intimacy and communication.

As health care professionals, you’d be surprised at the amount of sex or masturbation injuries you’d see walking through hospital doors. Being adventurous is great, but sometimes simple can save a lot of ‘injuries’.

Takeaway message:

If used correctly one can reap a bunch of benefits from masturbating. One should not feel ashamed for doing it as it is a way to get to know your body and yourself. The fear of being caught is even found to be exciting by some and used as a great form of arousal. Being in a relationship should not effect your decision to masturbate and it has been seen that couples who are very close do it together as a different form of intimacy. Masturbation won’t have negative side effects if done safely, correctly and non-excessively. If it interferes with your everyday life and your relationship with other people, then you should seek professional help.

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